ABSTRACT
Literacy is a complex and dynamic phenomenon that varies across history, language, and geography. The present review considers the roles of literacy in an international development perspective. First, an overview is provided of the history and definitions of literacy, considering its evolution from a dichotomous concept (literate/illiterate) to a continuum of writing, reading, and numeracy across the life span. Second, key contemporary aspects of literacy are described, including the effects of language of instruction policies, technology, and emergent crises on literacy acquisition in low-and-middle income countries. In conclusion, considerations and recommendations for literacy promotion are linked to broader issues in educational planning and international development. © 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.